What does the computer history hold? How did computers evolve over years? Know all about the important events in computer history through the full timeline of computers.

Computers have evolved from the fundamental principles of mathematical calculation and language processing. The computing systems of today are an outcome of the efforts and intellect of mathematicians, logicians, linguists and technologists from all over the world. Computer history comprises of the evolutionary journey of computing systems, the timeline of operating systems as well as the history behind the development of a wide variety of computer software and hardware. Before moving towards the elaborate history of computers, you can read about the computer history in brief and the evolution of computers.

How did the different types of computers evolve over time? Here is a brief overview of the progress of computing technology from calculators of the 18th century right up to the modern-day digital portable computers.

Year	Technology Used
Before 1801	Calculators were the earliest computing devices. They were the only computation tools for long years before the creation of computers.
1801	The years that followed were dominated by the use of punched cards for computing. The users used to submit programming assignments to a computer center using stacks of cards. The programs used to be queued for processing and execution.
1930 - 1960	Desktop mechanical calculators were built during the 1930s. During the 1950s and the ’60s, electronic desktop calculators came up. Analog computational technologies predominated this period.
1940 - 1960	This span of time witnessed the emergence of the digital computing technology. Zuse Z3, ENIAC and EDSAC were some of the early digital computers. First-generation computers were based on the von Neumann architecture. The second generation computers were characterized by the replacement of vacuum tube by bipolar transistors. They were composed of printed circuit boards.
After 1960	These years witnessed the development of the third generation computers. They were based on integrated circuits. Computer systems of this period had large storage capacities and high processing powers. Multi-core CPUs became available in the 21st century. Laptops, palmtops, handheld PCs, notebook computers and tablet PCs are popular today. Computer development still continues.

Let us now look at the history and timeline of computing systems. Before moving ahead, it will be interesting to know when was the first computer made!

Year	Event
2400 BC	Abacus, the first known calculator was invented in Babylonia. It was a major step towards the era of computing that was to follow.
500 BC	Panini, an ancient Indian Sanskrit grammarian came up with the predecessor of the modern formal language theory.
300 BC	Pingala invented the binary number system that serves as the foundation of computing systems the world over.
1614	John Napier designed the system of moveable rods, which used algorithms to perform the basic mathematical operations.
1622	William Oughtred invented slide rules.
1822	Charles Babbage devised the first mechanical computer.
1937	John V. Atanasoff devised the first digital electronic computer
1939	Atanasoff and Clifford Berry came up with the ABC prototype.
1941	The electromechanical Z machines by Konrad Zuse proved being an important step in the evolution of computers.
1943	Colossus, which was able to decode German messages, was designed at Bletchley Park in Britain.
1944	Harvard Mark I, a computer with lesser programmability was designed.
1945	John von Neumann described a stored program architecture, for the first time ever. This architecture was the heart of the computer systems developed thereafter. This architecture, which came to be known as the von Neumann architecture is a part of every computer till today.
1946	The Ballistics Research Laboratory of the United States came up with the Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer (ENIAC). It was the first general purpose electronic computer; but had an inflexible architecture.
1950	The US National Bureau of Standards came up with the Standards Electronic/Eastern Automatic Computer (SEAC). It was the first computer using diodes for handling logic.
1951	Lynos Electronic Office (LEO), the first business computer was developed by John Simmons and T. Raymond Thompson. UNIVAC I, the first commercial computer was designed in the United States by John Presper Eckert and John W. Mauchly. EDVAC, the electronic discrete variable automatic computer was introduced.
1955	Bell Labs introduced its first transistor computer. Transistors made computers energy-efficient.
1958	Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) was formed. This year also witnessed the making of the first silicon chip by Jack Kilby and Robert Noyce.
1968	DEC launched the first mini computer known as PDP-8
1969	The US Department of Defense founded the Advanced Research Projects Agency Network (ARPANET). It was established with intent to develop a computer network and is the predecessor of the Internet.
1971	Microcomputers came up with microprocessors and Ted Hoff at Intel, introduced 4-bit 4004.
1972	This year witnessed the creation of 8080 microprocessors by Intel.
1973	A minicomputer that was called Xerox Alto was developed during this year. It was an important milestone in the development of personal computers.
1974	Researchers at the Xerox Palo Alto Research Center came up with Alto, which was the first workstation with an inbuilt mouse. It had a fair amount of storage capacity and offered menus and icons. It could also connect to a network.
1975	Altair came up with the first portable computer. The foundation of the present-day relationship between portability and computing was laid way back in 1975! Tandem computers, the first computers with online transaction processing capacities were born during this period.
1979	By 1979, more that half a million computers were in use in the United States. This number crossed 10 million by 1983.
1981	The American National Standards Institute (ANSI) was founded. It was during the same year that the first 32-bit chip was introduced by Hewlett-Packard.
1982	Intel announced the 80286 processor.
1983	In this year, the Time magazine nominated personal computer for the title ‘machine of the year’.
1985	Intel introduced the 80386 processor that consists of a 16MHz processor.
1990	The World Wide Web was born. Tim Berners-Lee, a researcher at CERN, developed HTML. He came up with specifications such as URL and HTTP. He based the World Wide Web on enquiry-based system that used hypertext and enabled people to collaborate over a network. His first web server and browser became available to the public.
Till date	The development of newer versions of computer systems continues.

An operating system is that software component of a computer system, which deals with the management of the different computer processes and the sharing of computer resources. It hosts computer applications and handles computer hardware. Take a look at the major events in the history of operating systems. Before going ahead, you might like to take a quick look at the different types of operating systems.

Year	Event
1954	MIT came up with their operating system for UNIVAC 1103.
1964	Dartmouth timesharing operating system was developed.
1965	Multics was announced. However, it was opened for paying customers in October 1969.
1966	DOS/360 of IBM came up.
1969	This year witnessed the development of the Unix operating system by AT&T.
1976	CP/M was developed during this year.
1980	OS-9 came up in 1980.
1981	This year can be considered fortunate to have witnessed the development of MS-DOS. IBM had hired Paul Allen and Bill Gates to create an operating system in 1980. They used the operating system manufactured by the Seattle Computer Products as a template to develop DOS.
1984	Macintosh operating system came up in this year.
1987	It was during this year that MINIX, BSD2000 and OS/2 were developed.
1988	RISC iX, LynxOS and Macintosh OS (System 6) came up during this year.
1989	This was the time when the RISC operating system was developed.
1991	It was in 1991 that Linux came up. It is a Unix-like operating system, which is a free software. It was during this year that Minix 1.5 was developed and Macintosh came up with System 7.
1992	Solaris, the successor of Sun OS 4.X came up during this year.
1993	Plan 9, FreeBSD, NetBSD and Windows NT 3.1 came up during 1993.
1995	OpenBSD and Microsoft Windows 95 came up during 1995
1996	Windows NT 4.0 hit the computing market in 1996.
1998	1998 witnessed the release of Windows 98 as well of Solaris 7.
2000	Windows 2000, which hit the markets in 2000, was the first Windows server operating system to drop the ‘NT’ suffixed to its name. Windows ME, which was sold during this year, was the last operating system in the Windows 9x line. Red Hat Linux 6.2E also came up during 2000.
2001	Windows XP was launched and soon gained a wide popularity. Windows XP 64-bit edition followed in 2002.
2002	Windows XP Service Pack 1 was released in 2002.
2003	2003 witnessed the launch of the Windows 2003 Server as also the release of Red Hat Enterprise Linux 3.
2004	Windows XP Service Pack 2 was released in 2004.
2006	Windows Vista hit the markets
2008	Windows Vista Service Pack 1 and Windows Server 2008 came up in 2008. It was also during this very year that Windows XP Service Pack 3 was released.

Computers have always been the most efficient computational devices. They have high processing powers and are able to run and execute large programs. Programming languages serve as the means to write programs on computer systems. Thus, it is important to look at the timeline of the development of some of the major programming languages. Following is an overview of the important events in the history of computer languages.

Year	Programming Language Developed
Before 1950	The ENIAC coding system was primarily used in computing
1954-54	Fortran "0" was designed by a team at IBM. Fortran Implementation was developed by John Backus at IBM in 1957.
1956-58	John McCarthy came up with the concept of LISP.
1959	COBOL concept came up followed by its implementation that was developed by the Codasyl Committee in 1960. The LISP implementation was developed in 1959. LISP’s successor, Common LISP, came up later in 1984.
1964	IBM came up with PL/I concept. PL/M followed years later in 1972. 1964 also saw the development of BASIC by Kemeny and Kurtz.
1969	Ken Thompson developed the B language.
1970	This was when Pascal was developed.
1972	It was during 1972 that Smalltalk and Prolog were developed. One of the most important events in the history of computing was the development of C language. It was developed by Dennis Ritchie in 1972.
1975	Scheme, the successor of LISP came up in 1975 as also Modula, the successor of Pascal.
1978	SQL was developed at IBM in 1978.
1979	REXX and AWK came up in 1979.
1980-83	C with classes was developed in 1980. Objective-C came up in 1982. 1983 witnessed the development of C++, one of the very popular languages till date.
1985	PostScript and Object Pascal belong to 1985.
1987	Perl that derives some of its features from C, as also from AWK, sed and sh evolved in 1987.
1991	Van Rossum came up with Python. Visual Basic, developed by Alan Cooper, came up in the same year.
1993	Ruby, which is considered a successor of Smalltalk and Perl, came up in 1993.
1994	PHP was born in 1994.
1995	ColdFusion belongs to 1995. It was during this year that James Gosling at Sun Microsystems came up with Java.
1996	Javascript was born in this year. ECMAScript, its successor came up in 1997.
1999	XSLT, a language based on XML by the W3C and the Game Maker Language by Mark Overmars were born in 1999.
2000	The D language and C# came up in 2000.
2006	The development of Windows PowerShell by Microsoft was one of the significant events in computing that took place in 2006.

Looking at the speedily advancing computing technology, we can surely say that the future of computers shall be as glorious as their history.

By Manali Oak Published: 10/13/2008

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Competing with Windows, Linux has managed to earn a fair amount of popularity owing to its unique features like being a free software and supporting open source development. Here is an introduction to Linux and an overview of the history of Linux. Read on…

Linux is one of the popularly used operating systems and is a free software supporting open source development. Originally designed for Intel 80386 microprocessors, Linux now runs on a wide variety of computer architectures and has spread far and wide.

Linux - History

Unix was the third operating system to CTSS, the first one followed by MULTICS. A team of programmers led by Prof. Fernando J. Corbato at the MIT Computation Center, wrote the CTSS, the first operating system supporting the concept of time-sharing. AT&T started working on the MULTICS operating system but had to leave the project as they were failing to meet deadlines. Ken Thompson, Dennis Ritchie and Brian Kerngham at Bell Labs, used the ideas on the MULTICS project to develop the first version of Unix.

MINIX was a Unix-like system released by Andrew Tenenbaum. The source code was made available to the users but there were restrictions on the modification and distribution of the software. On August 25, 1991, Linus Torvalds, a second year computer engineering student studying in the University of Helsinki made an announcement that he was going to write an operating system. With an intent to replace MINIX, Torvalds started writing the Linux kernel. With this announcement of Torvalds, a success story had begun! Linux was previously dependent on the MINIX user space but with the introduction of the GNU GPL, the GNU developers worked towards the integration of Linux and the GNU components.

Linux - Introduction

The Unix-like operating system that uses the Linux kernel is known as the Linux operating system. In 1991, Linus Torvalds came up with the Linux kernel. He started writing the Linux kernel after which, around 250 programmers contributed to the kernel code. Richard Stallman, an American software developer, who was a part of the GNU project, created the General Public License, under which Linux is distributed. The utilities and libraries of Linux come from the GNU operating system.

By the term ‘free software’, we mean that Linux can be copied and redistributed in the altered or unaltered form without many restrictions. Each recipient of the Linux software is entitled to obtain the human readable form of the software and a notice granting the person the permissions to modify its source code. In other words, the distribution of the Linux software implies the distribution of a free software license to its recipients. Linux supports open source development by which we mean that all its underlying source code can be freely modified, used and distributed. The open source method of development enables the users of the software to access its source code.

A Linux distribution is a project that manages the collection of Linux software and the installation of the OS. It includes the system software and the application software in the form of packages and the initial installation and configuration details. There are around 300 different Linux distributions. The most prominent of the Linux distributions include Red Hat, Fedora and Mandrake. Fedora Core came up after the ninth version of Red Hat Linux. Fedora Core is a rapidly updated Linux distribution. Most of the Linux distributions support a diverse range of programming languages. Most of them include Perl, Python, Ruby and other dynamic languages. Linux supports a number of Java virtual machines and development kits as also the C++ compilers.

Linux is a freely available OS based on the Linux kernel. It is an inexpensive and effective alternative to the UNIX programs and utilities. Its open source implementation enables any programmer to modify its code. Linux supports a multi-tasking and multi-user environment as also the copy-on-write functionality. The monolithic Linux kernel handles the process control, networking and the file system. Device drivers are integrated in the kernel. The Linux operating system is equipped with libraries, compilers, text editors, a Unix shell and a windowing system. Linux supports both the command line as well and the graphical user interfaces. Linux is popularly used in servers and also with desktop computers, supercomputers, video games and embedded systems. I have always enjoyed working on the Linux platform, have you?

By Manali Oak Published: 8/21/2008

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Computer software have facilitated the interaction between human beings and computers. What are the different kinds of software? Go through the examples of different computer software.

 If hardware can be said to form the physical aspect of a computer system, software forms the brains of a computer! Software refers to the computer programs, procedures and documentation that perform certain tasks on a computer system. Following is an extensive list of examples of the different kinds of software. Before going through it, you may like to take a quick look at the major types of software.

Examples of Software

Application Software: Application software is that, which is designed for the end-users and hence known as end-user programs. It employs the capabilities of a computer to execute the tasks that the user wishes to perform on a computer system. Look at the various examples of application software.

Content Access Software: They are used to access content without editing it. Electronic media software such as media players, editor players as also web browsers, which allow user access to web content are some examples of content access software. Game consoles and entertainment software are some other examples of content access software.

Educational Software: They are used to deliver tests and track progress. They are used for educational purposes. Training management and classroom management software are some examples of educational software. The software used for purposes of edutainment, a form of entertainment that aims at educating the masses, is also a form of educational software.

Enterprise Software: It caters to the needs of organization processes and data flow. Customer relationship management and supply chain management software are the well-known examples of enterprise software. Enterprise infrastructure software supports the enterprise software systems.

Information Worker Software: It caters to the needs of an individual to manage information pertaining to a project or a single department. Resource management software and documentation tools are some of the popularly used information worker software.

Media Development Software: They are used for the generation of print and electronic media in the educational and commercial sector. Image organizers and image editing software, animation software like Flash, audio and video editors as well as the web development software are some well-known examples of media development software.

Product Engineering Software: This software is used in the development of hardware and software products. Application programming interfaces and integrated development environments are the well-known examples of product engineering software. Program testing tools, debuggers, compilers and CAD are some of the other instances of product engineering software.

Simulation Software: They are used for the simulation of physical and abstract systems. Computer simulators that are used for simulating scientific concepts and social ideas, battlefield, vehicle and flight simulators are some of the popular examples of simulation software.

Programming Languages: They are artificial languages that are used to write programs that control the functioning of a computer system. They are the building blocks of computer applications. Go through the complete list of the different programming languages.

System Software: It is a computer software that manages and controls hardware in order to enable application software to perform its tasks. System software performs the functions like transferring data from memory to the disk or delivering text onto a display device. Following are the different kinds of system software.

Device Drivers: They are computer programs, which facilitate the interaction of high-level computer programs with the hardware devices. Drivers also provide interrupt-handling mechanisms.

Linkers: A linker is a program that takes the objects generated by a compiler and combines them to form a single executable program.

Loading Programs: Loaders are used for loading programs from executable files into memory, making them ready for execution and then executing them. It is a part of the kernel of an operating system.

Operating System: An operating system manages and coordinates the activities of a computer. It hosts the applications running on a computer system and also provides certain services to application programs and users. Microsoft Windows XP and Linux are two of the most popularly known operating systems. Windows Vista is a relatively recent operating system with many advanced features.

Utility Software: It helps in the management of computer hardware and application software. It performs a small range of tasks. Utility software are also known as service routines. Here are some examples of utility software.

Application Launchers: They provide application software with an access point to run on a computer system.

Archive Utilities: They output a single file or a stream when provided with a directory or a set of files.

Compression Utilities: When they are provided with a file or a single stream, they present the inputted stream in a compressed form.

Disk Defragmenters: They detect computer files whose contents are stored in the form of disjoint fragments and move the fragments together. A disk checker scans the contents of a hard disk to detect corrupted areas. A disk cleaner helps in segregating the unnecessary files residing on the hard disk that can be deleted.

Editor Utilities: Editor utilities directly modify data or files without changing the actual program. They come in forms of binary, hex and text editor utilities.

Encryption Utilities: When they are provided with plaintext and an accompanying key, they use encryption algorithms to output the encrypted stream.

Network Managers: They check computer networks, data transfers and log events.

Registry Cleaners: They remove the old registry entries, thus cleaning and optimizing the windows registry. There are a number of popular registry cleaners available today.

System Profilers: They provide the computer users with the information about the software and the hardware in the computer system. Backup software are capable of making a copy of all the information on a system or of selected files. Disk compression software is used to compress the data on a disk so that more amount of information can fit onto it.

System Utilities: They are a set of different utility programs that provide methods for routine data management tasks like modifying, copying, merging, renaming and cataloging data sets.
Virus Scanners: They scan for viruses on a computer system. They are widely known as antivirus software.

Here is an overview of some of the other important kinds of software.

Content-control software: It refers to the software designed for controlling the content that is permitted for the user to access. It can determine what content will be available on a particular machine or network. Content-control software are commonly used at homes and in schools to restrict the content that can be accessed over the net by the students. Go through some more information on content-control software.

Data Recovery Software: Apart from the facilities of copying of data files, data recovery software supports the user needs of backing up important computer data. It allows the user to specify what is to be backed up and when.

Open Source Software: The concept of open source software refers to the computer software, whose source code is available to the public domain. Users are allowed to use, modify, improve and redistribute open source software. Linux is a well-known example of open source software development. Know all about free software downloads.

Proprietary Software: Contrary to open source software, proprietary software involves restrictions on its use. The creators of proprietary software restrict source code access through legal means or through technical measures.

Portable Software: It is an important class of software, which includes the software that are suitable for portable devices. Portable software is used on portable drives like USB drive and Palm PDA.

Project Management Software: It refers to the software used for scheduling, budget management and resource allocation. It comprises of collaboration software and documentation systems.

Shareware: The term refers to commercial software that is distributed on a trial basis. It is distributed without payment and with limited functionality. Shareware is commonly offered in a downloadable format on the Internet. The distribution of this kind of software aims at giving the users a chance to analyze the software before they become its licensed users.

Spyware: The fundamental purpose of spyware is monitoring user behavior. It can also collect personal information, redirect browser activity and change computer settings. Learn about spyware protection.

Weblog Software: It consists of a content management system created for maintaining weblogs.

This was an overview of the different kinds of computer software along with their examples. Computer software has laid a platform for us to communicate with computers. Having witnessed the computer era and the software revolution, we can surely consider ourselves fortunate to have been a part of it!

See also "Computer Evolution Timeline"

By Manali Oak Published: 10/1/2008

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Computers and the Internet have come a long way since their inception. Living in the computer age means adapting to new technologies as they evolve. The ease and speed of communication that computer technology provides allows us to be more productive in every facet of our lives. That technology requires skilled computer professionals to design, maintain, and implement it.

What is it?

Computer training is divided into specialties including:

Computer hardware
Computer software
Computer networking
Web Development

Computer hardware refers to the actual physical components that comprise computers (processors, modems, keyboards, motherboards etc). Computer hardware engineers design, develop and maintain computer hardware. They may oversee the installation and manufacture of hardware. Due to the constant flux of the industry, continued education is required to keep up with trends and technology.

Computer software refers to the content that makes a computer work. Software is divided into three categories: Platform (such as operating systems i.e. Windows, Linux, and Macintosh OSX), Applications (Microsoft Office, games), and User-Written (templates, plug-ins, extensions). Computer software engineers, like their hardware counterparts, are required to continually learn new skills in conjunction with developing technology.

Computer networking refers to communication between a group or groups of computers. This includes LAN-local area network, MAN-metropolitan area network and WAN-wide area network. Computer network engineers work with software and hardware integration across a system of computers and servers. They deal with computer-to-computer interface and connect users to each other via private as well as public networks.

Web development refers to the building and implementation of websites (design, programming, server configuration) - Web page design is a subset that deals with user interface design, graphics, html and CSS (cascading style sheets). Web page designers are behooved to have good art skills as they will most likely be dealing with graphics, layout and Flash applications.

Why do it?

Other than the obvious passion for computers and technology, salary and job growth potential are excellent reasons to consider computer careers. Diversity of computer skills adds to marketability in the workforce. Many employers do not have time to train workers on basic skills and expect employees to be more than familiar with computers.

Who should do it?

If you have an aptitude or interest in math, science or art, and have strong problem solving and analytical skills you are a perfect candidate for a computer related career. Computer careers can be solitary work, but often require good communication skills. Systems administrators must know how to relay information to clients and coworkers in order to maintain order and efficiency in the system.

Education is available in many varieties; from certifications, certificate programs, associate’s degree programs, bachelor’s and even master’s degree programs. Many professionals receive degrees in computer science and related fields, but still others are required to have specific certifications (for example MCSE-Microsoft Certified Systems Engineer or MCSA-Microsoft Certified Systems Administrator). Many industries do not require these specific certifications, only knowledge and experience of computer systems. When making a decision about education, research the jobs that interest you and find out just what the employers are looking for in a candidate. Why spend four years working on a bachelor’s degree when a shorter certificate program may be all you need?

Where can I find out more?

For more information on careers, training, and working conditions see the Occupational Outlook handbook at the US Bureau of Labor Statistics site.

For help finding a computer school, visit: http://www.collegesearchengine.net

About The Author

Kate Leas is a freelance writer from Kansas City, Missouri. Her current topics include education and the Internet. For help finding a computer school, visit: www.collegesearchengine.net

This article was posted on December 25, 2005

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